2000 East Nusantara Linguistics Workshop

Oral Traditions Workshop
Sunday 23 July 2000
9.00am - 12.30pm

Co-ordinator: Margaret Florey mflorey@mail.newcastle.edu.au

This web page contains a sample version of answers to the questionnaire for Margaret Florey's workshop on oral traditions at the 2000 East Nusantara Linguistics Workshop. This sample was prepared by Margaret Florey and relates to Alune, spoken in western Seram. The questionnaire itself can be viewed on line by clicking on the following link:

The questionnaire is also available as a rich text format file by clicking on the following link:

This sample answer to the oral traditions questionnaire is also available to be downloaded as an rtf file, as are some other sample responses. These can be downloaded by clicking on the links below. (More sample answers to be added to this list as they become available).

If you have any trouble accessing any of these things please email John Bowden at john.bowden@anu.edu.au or Margaret Florey at mflorey@mail.newcastle.edu.au and one of us will send you a copy by other means.

Oral Traditions

In recent years several detailed accounts of oral traditions among ethnolinguistic groups in eastern Indonesia have appeared (for example, Fox 1988, Hoskins 1993, Keane 1997). Yet overall, the study of oral traditions in this region remains neglected. This is particularly apparent for Maluku, for which there is no body of work comparable to the emerging descriptions of the oral traditions in Nusa Tenggara. The aim of this workshop, therefore, is to widen our knowledge about oral traditions in East Nusantara and, in so doing, to provide a preliminary typology of the genres and of the structural and functional features of oral traditions for this region.

The questions below which participants are asked to address for the language(s) with which they work, are aimed at determining the range and distribution of genres of oral traditions throughout the region and examining

  • the function(s) of genres
  • structural features (such as parallelism)
  • aspects of composition and performance
  • ownership of knowledge and constraints on speech
  • transmission (maintenance and loss) of oral traditions.
We realise that many linguists may not have focused on some of these issues in their research and may have only limited familiarity with the oral traditions of the language they have been studying. However, respondents are asked to provide as much detail as possible for these questions, including examples (of genres or certain structural features) where relevant.

The questionnaire

1. The language

Which language is this questionnaire on and where is it spoken?

Alune
Spoken in 26 villages on the western part of Seram island, Central Maluku

2. Genres of oral traditions

2.1 List as completely as possible the genres of oral traditions which you are aware of in this ethnolinguistic group. These may include (but are not limited to):

  • narrative genres, for example:
    • origin or creation tales
    • epic tales
    • historical narratives
    • folk tales
  • oral poetry
  • song genres
  • riddles
  • language of rituals associated with life stages, for example:
    • midwifery rituals
    • proposal of marriage
    • payment of bridewaelth
    • burial practices
  • language of rituals associated with village-wide ceremonies, for example:
    • building/consecrating a new dwelling or ritual house
    • (Central Moluccan) pela (intervillage alliance) ceremonies
    • chant to mark the opening or closing of a ceremony
  • healing language/ register
  • hunting and/or fishing language/ register
  • respect register (possibly involving lexical replacement terms)
  • mantra/incantations/(magical)chants/spells, for example those used for:
    • curative purposes
    • malevolent purposes, such as causing illness or catastrophe
    • success in hunting and/or fishing
    • protection of self or property
    • appeasement of gods or ancestral spirits
    • crop planting and harvest
Alune

narrative genres (origin or creation tales)

ma'lulu narratives which recount the origin or creation of an aspect of Alune sociopolitical life. For example, narratives recounting:

  • the origin and meaning of Alune lineage names
  • the founding of a village site
  • the travels of important ancestral figures
  • the origin of Alune midwifery knowledge
narrative genres (epic tales)

'apatate pantun, quatrain, epic tale. There are two kinds of 'apata: one kind is created to honour important occasions involving the whole village. A second kind is written in sou mo'wai (men's language based on metaphor) and derives from the time of the indigenous religion and headhunting tales.

narrative genres (historical narratives)

hnusu narratives which recount an incident in Alune history. For example, hnusu recorded in Lohiasapalewa (an inland Alune village), include:

  • life during the era of the RMS guerilla war (fought in the 1950s and early 60s)
  • an incident in 1970 in which the camat tried to force the relocation of the village to the coast
  • the Rumasoal war and the imprint of a soldier, his shoe and his weapon in rock near the village
  • story of an ancestor who possessed the power to stretch himself as tall as the treetops to hunt cuscus
  • stories about events which gave the Alune their knowledge of rice, sago harvesting, etc.
narrative genres (folk tales)

tuni folk tales told for entertainment and usually narrated at night.

oral poetry

not known

song genres

  • biole sung on festive occasions, such as a wedding, the completion of rice-planting, celebration of a birth. Some biole are sung in parts - man sings a section and woman or other person responds.
  • hiahoi song-style sung by villagers when they were traveling over the mountains carrying heavy loads for the Dutch administrators and soldiers. The song reportedly contained the power to give the bearers strength and to lighten their load, and others working in the forest had to hide if they heard it.
  • sua-sua sung only by the mninu (village chanter); accompanied by a horn made from bamboo or conch shell and by female voices; sung, for example, when an important guest comes, or to announce the induction of a new village headman.
  • sulite song style which tells a story and is associated with ritual. Considered unrefined in contrast to the hatu song style
  • tutu hatu kind of song style sung while at celebration or gathering. Considered refined because sung slowly. Involves gong and drum. People dance around one person who's in middle of circle
riddles

hote' latu

language of rituals associated with life stages:

  • midwifery rituals
    • sidi 'wete belu'we (literally: 'bringing out the newborn') - midwifery ritual performed by traditional midwives (biane) when a baby is approximately ten to fifteen days old and is brought outside the home for the first time
  • proposal of marriage
    • Loa metu batai (literally: 'to cross the threshold') or sa' bina ('to propose to a woman') marriage proposal ritual held when a man's luma asks permission from a woman's luma for the couple to marry.
  • payment of bridewealth
    • Beli bata - ritual associated with the payment of bridewealth
  • burial practices
    • now all Christian
  • language of rituals associated with village-wide ceremonies, for example:
    • building/consecrating a new dwelling or ritual house
      'oti pelate (to make an offering to the ancestors during the consecration of a house)
  • (Central Moluccan) pela (intervillage alliance) ceremonies
    various inter-village alliances exist, including
    • pela generic pela ceremony
    • pela ma'bunu alliance arising from war or murder
    • pela soi 'wate alliance of brotherhood
    • pela 'wali toi alliance of brotherhood
  • chant to mark the opening or closing of a ceremony
    • bolu'we - opening segment of 'apatate or sua-sua: chants
    • nabu'we - opening segment of maru-maru chants
    • alamanane - a traditional chant or poetic form; a formal speech in chant form under customary law
healing language/ register

lepate mlerude - literally 'healing speech': a register based on metaphorical reference to injuries

hunting and/or fishing language/ register

In the respect register used while hunting, various replacement terms exist: for example,

  • utane 'vegetable' is the respect term for apale "pig" and maralane "deer"
  • plaene 'butterfly' is a respect term meaning domestic fowl
respect register (possibly involving lexical replacement terms)

  • ma'mosi - a respect relationship between a woman and her brothers-in-law, or a man and his sisters-in-law: the relationship is marked by the use of respect terms for words forming full or partial homonyms with the personal names of someone with whom one is in a respect relationship. It also includes certain behavioral restrictions, such as not eating in the same room. Breaches of the restrictions or failure to use a respect term was punished by imposition of a fine, usually in the form of cloth or pottery
  • sou mo'wai - literally 'mens' language'; a register which was associated with the traditional religious and government organization (kakehan). The register used metaphor to conceal one's meaning and intention.
mantra/incantations/(magical)chants/spells:

  • atia (literally 'to ruin') - incantation used in order to cause illness or catastrophe
  • lala - incantation recited to appease the gods or ancestral spirits
  • leba - incantation to bless (and thus increase the size of) a rice crop
  • mleru - incantation used by a traditional healer to cure illness
  • pele nana'wala - to defend one's body through the use of incantations 'wate - incantation used to protect designated products in a garden
2.2 Identification of oral traditions. Do members of this speech community differentiate between the various genres you have listed through:

  • naming of genres?
  • topic (e.g. celebrating or marking a particular aspect of life)?
  • differences in function?
  • structural differences?
Alune

naming of genres?

yes, as listed above

topic (e.g. celebrating or marking a particular aspect of life)?

yes, as for life cycle rituals listed above

differences in function?

yes, see above

structural differences?

yes, as for special registers (men's language, healing register, hunting replacement terms) listed above

Note any other means speakers use to differentiate genres (for example, through association with a particular composer or performer, or with a particular location, time of year or season, etc.).

Alune

certain cyclic or seasonal ceremonies, such as

  • those associated with planting and harvesting of rice
  • pela renewal ceremonies
3. Function.

3.1 What functions are filled by the oral traditions which you have listed?

Alune

Yes, as listed under each named genre above.

3.2 On what occasions are the genres you have listed heard or performed? Consider, for example:

  • on what occasions might folk tales be narrated to young children (in the evenings in the home, in garden huts, etc.)?
  • on what occasions might origin or creation tales or epic tales be narrated?
  • when would particular song styles be heard or performed?
Alune

on what occasions might folk tales be narrated to young children (in the evenings in the home, in garden huts, etc.)?

  • tuni are generally narrated in the evenings in the home or garden hut
  • other forms of narrative genres are now very rarely narrated or performed
  • other rituals may be performed on appropriate occasions (marriage proposal, midwifery rituals, etc.)
on what occasions might origin or creation tales or epic tales be narrated?

  • now unlikely to be narrated
  • some origin or creation tales may be narrated on rare occasions of having to record or provide evidence of village or lineage ownership
when would particular song styles be heard or performed?

  • song styles are associated with particular ceremonies or on festive occasions
4. Structure

4.1 What are the structures of the genres you have listed? Consider, for example:

  • special phonological features, such as:
    • metathesis
    • phonemes which only occur in certain registers, possibly through the incorporation of loanwords or the use of another language (for example, some Alune incantations were composed in north Moluccan languages and in Arabic)
    • prosodic and suprasegmental features
    • voice qualities (imitating or playing the role of other participants, use of creaky voice, etc.)
  • morpho-syntax
    • have you noted the presence of unusual morpho-syntactic features in the oral traditions of this language?
    • have you noted the absence of any commonly-occurring morpho-syntactic feature in any genre?
  • lexicon
    • is a special lexicon part of a certain genre?
    • what language does that lexicon draw on?
    • are any special wordplay techniques found?
  • discourse structure and other structural components. For example:
    • have you noted the use of repetition of phrases, sentences, or larger segments in a narrative?
    • are there set themes or components which recur in certain genres (narratives, song)?
    • do sung segments occur in some narrative traditions?
    • do songs, incantations or other genres take a conventional length (number of lines) or number of segments?
    • is there a formulaic opening and/or closing in certain genres?
    • verse and chorus in oral poetry
Alune

Phonology:

  • special phonological features such as metathesis:

    • metathesis not noted
    • prenasalised stops are considered more refined and possibly were a feature of a respect register which no longer exists
  • phonemes which only occur in certain registers, possibly through the incorporation of loanwords or the use of another language

    presence of loanwords in Alune incantations composed in north Moluccan languages and in Arabic but phonology has largely been nativised

  • prosodic and suprasegmental features

    not noted in the genres recorded as now very rarely performed naturalistically

  • voice qualities (imitating or playing the role of other participants, use of creaky voice, etc.)

    whispering ('blowing') of incantations
    sung portions of certain tuni and hnusu
    voice pitch changes for some performers narrating part of female or male characters

morpho-syntax

  • have you noted the presence of unusual morpho-syntactic features in the oral traditions of this language?

    not noted - oral traditions appear to use morpho-syntactic features of everyday language - in the case of younger, non-fluent speakers, recitation of Alune incantations, songs, etc. shows use of conservative Alune which is not part of their everyday speech (e.g. conservative genitive marking)

  • have you noted the absence of any commonly-occurring morpho-syntactic feature in any genre?

    No - oral traditions appear to use morpho-syntactic features of everyday language

lexicon

  • is a special lexicon part of a certain genre? yes: special lexicons are a key element in
    • respect register (ma'mosi)
    • healing language (lepate mlerude)
    • hunting lexicon
    • incantations
    • many songs and chants are said to be untranslatable to contemporary speakers and are considered to be in archaic language

  • what language does that lexicon draw on?

    speakers are uncertain. It is possible words in the respect register (ma'mosi) derive from Wemale. Also possible that the lexicon of incantations derives from a range of North Moluccan languages. Arabic lexemes are also present in incantations. The lexicon of other special registers is Alune with semantic change.

  • are any special wordplay techniques found?

    use of metaphor to conceal meanings in some song styles and in the healing register. For example,

    • ai 'tree' replaces lelale 'leg' in the healing register
    • melate ' weeds' - in context of saying someone has gone to the garden, meaning they have died in the healing register
    • manu lusi 'alan bubui Variable Goshawk Accipiter novaehollandiae is used as a metaphor for headhunters in an old Alune song

  • discourse structure and other structural components. For example:

    • Repetition of phrases, sentences, or larger segments in a narrative?

      repetition of final clause of a theme in a narrative as transition to new theme

    • set themes or components which recur in certain genres (narratives, song)?

      Common characteristics of Alune tuni include:
      an anthropomorphic animal, bird or insect as a key character
      theme of headhunting
      theme of orphaned or abandoned children
      theme of women emerging from a plant or animal form

    • Sung segments occur in some narrative traditions?

      yes, for example in the Lisona hnusu which tells of a young girl who was held captive by her uncle in a tree house. Her brother repeatedly tries to rescue her and sings to her from the base of the tree

    • Songs, incantations or other genres take a conventional length (number of lines) or number of segments?

      Modern Alune incantations vary between three and six lines in length
      Traditional incantations have now fixed line length

    • Formulaic opening and/or closing in certain genres?

      bolu'we - opening segment of 'apatate or sua-sua: chants
      nabu'we - opening segment of maru-maru chants
      alamanane - a traditional chant or poetic form; a formal speech in chant form under customary law

    • verse and chorus in oral poetry

      sua-sua: main part sung by the mninu (village chanter); response by other (male and female) singers

4.2 Parallelism.

The phenomenon of parallelism among the languages of eastern Indonesia is best known through Fox's work on Roti. Fox (1988:1) notes that "paired correspondences, at the semantic and syntactic levels, result in what is essentially a dyadic language - the phenomenon of 'speaking in pairs'". Parallelism has also been reported in the languages of East Nusantara in Sumba among the Kodi (Hoskins 1993, 1996), Weyewa (Kuipers 1992), and the Anakalangese (Keane 1997), in Flores among the Nage (Forth 1996) and the Ata Tana 'Ai (Lewis 1992), in Seram among the Alune (Florey 1998), and for the languages of Leti, Kisar and Wetan (van Engelenhoven 1997). Keane (1997: 101-111) provides a useful analysis and discussion of both the structure and the broader cultural meaning of parallelism. Here we are interested in trying to ascertain the extent to which parallelism occurs as a regional feature in the languages of East Nusantara and in determining both the range of structures.

  • Does parallelism occur in this language? If so, list the genres in which it occurs.
  • Parallelism has been noted at all linguistic levels and differs in its complexity and its form throughout this region. What form does parallelism take for this language?
  • What functions associated with the use of parallelism?
Alune

Does parallelism occur in this language? If so, list the genres in which it occurs.

yes - Parallelism is found in the highly formalised speech of incantations which are owned by a nuru or by a luma and are chanted aloud during the performance of rituals by skilled orators

Parallelism has been noted at all linguistic levels and differs in its complexity and its form throughout this region. What form does parallelism take for this language?

lexical: for example

  • lanite//tapele sky//earth
  • bulane//lematai moon//sun
  • Tuale//Dabike sun deity//moon deity
  • pela//'wate intervillage alliance//oath of prohibition
  • tetu//'oli fall from a height//fall over on the ground
  • mitale//lotu shrimp//frog
  • apale//marele pig//cuscus
  • mau//asu cat//dog
  • tenine//ole giant bamboo//variety of bamboo
  • derine//ala Ensete sp.//rice
5. Speech levels

5.1 Are there speech levels (similar to those described for Javanese, Balinese, Sundanese) in this language?

Alune

No.

5.2 How are those levels structurally differentiated? e.g.

  • lexicon
  • morpho-syntax
  • discourse
Alune

N/A.

5.3 How are those levels functionally differentiated? e.g.

  • age
  • gender
  • class/caste
  • topic
  • situation
  • combination of the above
Alune

N/A.

6. Composers and composition

In some speech communities composers are acknowledged and venerated. For the language/s with which you are familiar:

  • is the right to compose restricted to certain parts of the community (by clan or lineage, age, gender, status, etc.)?
  • are members of the speech community aware of the composer of oral traditions? For example, are certain narratives said to have been composed by a particular person?
  • are certain members of the community renowned as composers?
  • is composition in some oral traditions (e.g. origin or creation tales) attributed to a key ancestral figure?
  • are some oral traditions said to have been created by non-human composers (e.g. Alune midwifery knowledge was created and transmitted by cuscus (Phalanger spp.))?
  • are particular composers associated with certain oral traditions (e.g. songs, epic tales, mantra, riddles) but not with others (e.g. historical narratives, chants performed at village-wide ceremonies)?
Alune

Is the right to compose restricted to certain parts of the community (by clan or lineage, age, gender, status, etc.)?

Unclear due to shift from use of indigenous oral traditions. However, some new Alune songs are being composed by young men and women from a range of lineages, which appears to indicate few, if any, restrictions.

are members of the speech community aware of the composer of oral traditions? For example, are certain narratives said to have been composed by a particular person?

Very few narratives are attributed to a particular person. Those which are tend to be hnusu or ma'lulu which may be attributed to a particular ancestral figure or spirit or animal.

are certain members of the community renowned as composers?

Yes, though in the contemporary era this is restricted to song-writing.

is composition in some oral traditions (e.g. origin or creation tales) attributed to a key ancestral figure?

Yes, see response above.

are some oral traditions said to have been created by non-human composers?

Yes, Alune midwifery knowledge is said to derive from the cuscus (Phalanger spp.).

are particular composers associated with certain oral traditions (e.g. songs, epic tales, mantra, riddles) but not with others (e.g. historical narratives, chants performed at village-wide ceremonies)?

Certain people are well-known for their song-writing ability

7. Performance and performers

Is the right to speak or to use or perform certain oral traditions restricted to one part of the community (by clan or lineage, age, gender, status, etc.)? For example:

  • Fox (1974:65) notes for Roti that "nobles speak more than commoners, men more than women" and so forth,
  • Florey (in press) notes among the Alune a headhunting register restricted in earlier times to Alune men initiated into the kakehan society, midwifery knowledge restricted to women in a particular clan, a healing register restricted to certain renowned healers.
Alune

Yes, those who have the right to perform certain oral traditions are:

  • rituals owned by a nuru (patrilineal clan) were those performed publicly by a ritual specialist: the 'amale (village headman) mninu (village chanter), or tapel upui (guardian of the land)
  • rituals owned by a luma (localised lineage) were those performed by luma matai (the male head of a luma), or a biane (a woman with the right, inherited through her luma, to Alune midwifery knowledge).
  • incantations used for the purposes of healing, hunting, the protection of property or self, or those used for malevolent purposes may be owned by individuals or by a ma'aleru, a healer who employs divination and incantations
Are other constraints on ownership of knowledge noted for this speech community?

Alune

In traditional Alune society, the ownership of specialised knowledge was complex and context-dependent. Three categories of knowledge have been identified: that owned by a nuru (patrilineal clan), that owned by a luma (localised lineage), and that owned by an individual.

Who are the performers in this community?

Alune

  • as listed above for specialised knowledge
  • for narrating tuni, no restrictions
  • singing certain song genres - the mninu (village chanter)

Can non-human entities (animal, spirit, deities) be performers or participants?

Alune

yes, there are many non-human entities in stories (spirits, animals including pigs, cuscus, cat, frog, cockroach)

Are particular performers associated with certain oral traditions but not with others?

Alune

yes, as listed above.

Are certain members of the community renowned as performers?

Alune

yes, as listed above.

Who are the ritual specialists in this community?

Alune

as listed above

What performance contexts have you noted in this speech community?

Alune

contexts as noted for performance of rituals and festive occasions

Are certain oral traditions restricted to particular performance sites or prohibited from occurring in certain sites? Consider, for example:

  • public vs private
  • men's or women's ritual houses
  • within or external to residential areas
Alune

  • public vs private
    yes, as noted above, village-wide ceremonies (owned by a nuru) are public. Ceremonies owned by a luma are frequently public, while those owned by an individual (such as the use of incantations) are private
  • men's or women's ritual houses
    No longer, but previously in the kakehan house
  • within or external to residential areas
    Most ceremonies tend to be held in residential areas, with few (some healing practices) outside the village

What time frames are associated with various oral traditions? Consider, for example:

  • time of day (or night)
  • period of time (hours, days)
  • seasonal aspects
  • ceremonies/rituals which may be performed in several phases with varying lengths of break between phase
Alune

  • time of day (or night)
    public rituals now tend to be held during the day and often on weekends while villagers are in the settlement area, though celebrations may carry on in and through the night.
  • period of time (hours, days)
    in the contemporary setting, rituals are said to be much abridged due to the pressures of other work duties
  • seasonal aspects
    rituals associated with planting and harvesting of crops (rice) were previously held seasonally but now these events are rarely celebrated
  • ceremonies/rituals which may be performed in several phases with varying lengths of break between phase
    not noted

What constitutes the 'stage' in performance?

Alune

not possible to comment on many due to lack of performance of 'traditional' ceremonies

some ceremonies are performed in or around the village hall
many ceremonies are held in the church
some (midwifery rituals, house consecration) are held in private homes

What is the relationship between 'audience' and performer?

Alune

this is specific to each ritual. For example, in the midwifery rituals, the child's parents and extended family are involved in handing the midwife objects (such as a length of cuscus meat, water, bracelet) to the midwife at appropriate times.

8. Change

8.1 Is there evidence of change in the structure or function of any of the genres you have described? If so, what changes have you noted, or what changes do practitioners or audience note? For example:

  • are marriages still associated with 'traditional' ritual practices or have they become part of modern state and religious (Christian/Muslim) practice?
  • is bridewealth still paid and is there an associated ritual/ceremony?
  • if there were restrictions on the language which could be used during hunting or fishing, is this register still used? Always? Occasionally? Only by older members of the community?
Alune

  • are marriages still associated with 'traditional' ritual practices or have they become part of modern state and religious (Christian/Muslim) practice?
    many rituals are now at least in part associated with Christian practice, including the wedding ceremony, though now weddings tend to have three parts - state, church, traditional
    - burials are now entirely Christian
    - house blessings are often Christian
  • is bridewealth still paid and is there an associated ritual/ceremony?
    yes, though it is often delayed for many years and ceremonies are infrequent
  • if there were restrictions on the language which could be used during hunting or fishing, is this register still used? Always? Occasionally? Only by older members of the community?
    not known

8.2 Do healing practices still draw on, for example, a healing register, healing rituals, the use of incantations or mantra?

Alune

health care still to some extent utilises traditional practices (healing register, incantations, herbal medicines) but is becoming more dependent on modern (western) medical practice

8.3 Are genres of oral traditions being composed in a language other than the language indigenous to this community: for example, a regional lingua franca, a regional Malay variant, or Indonesian?

Alune

Younger Alune men in some villages own and utilise incantations which largely serve the functions of protecting oneself or harming enemies. Most of these incantations incorporate lexemes from several different languages.

8.4 Are new styles or genres emerging?

Alune

It does not appear so.

8.5 Which rituals are still performed regularly?

Alune

very few

9. Issues about recording oral traditions

We are interested in learning more about reasons for a) the limited documentation of oral traditions by linguists working in the East Nusantara region and b) the difficulties some linguists in the field report in attempting to record this kind of information. If you have worked through this questionnaire and found that there is little which you can say in response to these questions, we would like to learn more about why that may be the case. Some possible reasons may be:

  • working in a situation in which many genres of specialised knowledge are already obsolescent
  • encountering difficulties in gaining access to genres of specialised knowledge
  • lacking specific skills you feel are necessary to undertake this task (e.g. knowledge of ethnomusicology)
  • focus on a different task (e.g. recording the language to write a grammatical description)
  • limited time in the field
  • lack of interest
  • other reasons?
If you have encountered difficulties in gaining access to and recording certain genres of specialised knowledge, can these difficulties be attributed to, for example:

  • ownership of knowledge
  • taboos or restrictions on the right to transmit knowledge
  • restrictions on the right to narrate/sing/chant/perform
  • reluctance to discuss ancestral (pre-Christian or pre-Islamic) practices
  • other reasons?
Please briefly outline the issues which have had some bearing for you in regard to documentation of oral traditions in the language with which you work. Your response may include

  • your experiences
  • reasons for lack of documentation of oral traditions
  • reasons for difficulties in gaining access to and recording certain genres (both your explanations and those of members of the speech community)
  • attempts you have made to overcome those difficulties and level of success in so doing
  • what might encourage you to document oral traditions (e.g. collaborative research, different training)
10. References

Engelenhoven, Aone van. 1997. 'Words and expressions: notes on parallelism in Leti.' Cakalele 8: 1-26.

Florey, Margaret. In press. 'Threats to indigenous knowledge: a case study from eastern Indonesia.' To appear in Luisa Maffi, ed. Language, Knowledge, and the Environment: The Interdependence of Biological and Cultural Diversity. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C.

Florey, Margaret. 1998. 'Alune incantations: continuity or discontinuity in verbal art?' Journal of Sociolinguistics 2(2): 205-231.

Forth, Gregory. 1996. 'To chat in pairs: lexical pairing as a pervasive feature of Nage mundane speech.' Canberra Anthropology 19: 31-51.

Fox, James J. 1974. 'Our ancestors spoke in pairs': Rotinese views of language, dialect, and code. In Richard Bauman and Joel Sherzer, eds, Explorations in the ethnography of speaking. 65-85. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Fox, James J. 1988. To speak in pairs: essays on the ritual languages of eastern Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hoskins, Janet. 1996. 'From diagnosis to performance: medical practice and the politics of exchange in Kodi, West Sumba.' In Carol Laderman and Marina Roseman, eds, The performance of healing: 271-290. New York: Routledge.

Hoskins, Janet. 1993. The play of time: Kodi perspectives on calendars, history, and exchange. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Keane, Webb. 1997. Signs of recognition: powers and hazards of representation in an Indonesian society. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Kuipers, Joel C. 1992. 'Obligations to the word: ritual speech, performance, and responsibility among the Weyewa.' In Jane H. Hill and Judith T. Irvine, eds, Responsibility and evidence in oral discourse: 88-104. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lewis, E. Douglas. 1992. 'The relations of the social order, agricultural practice, and environment in Tana 'Ai, Flores.' In James J. Fox, ed, The heritage of traditional agriculture among the Western Austronesians: 47-66. Canberra: Department of Anthropology Occasional Papers, Australian National University.

Created and maintained by John Bowden: John.Bowden@anu.edu.au
Last modified: 15 May 2000